Follistatin (FS) was initially identified as a follicle-stimulating hormone inhibiting substance found in ovarian follicular fluid. It has since been shown that FS is a high‑affinity activin-binding protein that can act as an activin antagonist. Two alternatively spliced follistatin mRNAs, encoding mature FS with 288 amino acid (aa) residues (FS‑288) and 315 aa residues (FS‑315), […]

Prolactin (gene name PRL) is a secreted neuroendocrine pituitary hormone that acts primarily on the mammary gland to promote lactation, but has pleiotropic effects in both males and females. Prolactin is synthesized mainly by the anterior pituitary in all mammals, where secretion is under tonic inhibition by hypothalamic dopamine. Secretion can be stimulated by suckling […]

Prolactin, also named PRL and lactotrope is a peptide hormone, encoded by the PRL gene. The major form of PRL is a 23 kDa monomeric protein, splice variants of 14, 16, and 22 kDa have been identified. PRL has also been found to be glycosylated, phosphorylated, dimerized, and polymerized. Glycosylation, phosphorylation, dimerization, or polymerization of […]

Leptin is a protein product of the mouse obese gene . It modulates multiple functions including energy homeostasis, thermoregulation, bone metabolism, endocrine, and pro-inflammatory immune responses. As a signal molecule with growth factor characteristics, leptin can stimulate osteoblastic cells and inhibit osteoclast formation and activity, thus promoting osteogenesis.

Angiostatin is an antiangiogenic 3845 kDa proteolytic fragment of Plasminogen, a 92100 kDa glycosylated blood zymogen that serves as the precursor for Plasmin (1). Plasminogen is produced primarily in the liver, but also in other tissues. Angiostatin circulates in the plasma, binds endothelial cells and myeloid cells, is present in platelet granules, and is excreted […]

Endostatin is a naturally-occurring 20-kDa C-terminal fragment derived from collagen alpha-1(XVIII) chain (COL18A1). It is reported to serve as an anti-angiogenic agent, similar to angiostatin and thrombospondin. It potently inhibits endothelial cell proliferation and inhibits endothelial cell angiogenesis by binding to the heparan sulfate proteoglycans involved in growth factor signaling. Endostatin is a broad spectrum […]

PTHrP, also named parathyroid hormone-related protein, is belonging to the parathyroid hormone family. PTHrP is expressed in cancer cells (breast cancer, certain types of lung cancer including squamous cell lung carcinoma). The receptor for PTHrP is PTHR1. PTHrP plays a central role in regulating the hypercalcemia. Recombinant human PTHrP is a 9.9 kDa linear polypeptide […]

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a 34 kDa glycoprotein hormone in the type I cytokine family and is related to thrombopoietin. Its three N-glycosylation sites, four alpha helices, and N- to C-terminal disulfide bond are conserved across species. Glycosylation of the EPO protein is required for biological activities in vivo . The mature human EPO protein shares […]

PTH (parathyroid hormone) is a critical hormone in the regulation of Ca++ homeostasis. PTH is secreted by the chief cells of the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide. PTH secretion is enhanced by low Ca++ concentrations and inhibited by FGF-23. In normal human plasma, PTH correlates negatively with active Vitamin D and positively with ionized calcium. […]

Growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a member of a family of growth factors that includes prolactin, placental lactogens, proliferins, and somatolactin. It is synthesized primarily by somatotropes in the anterior pituitary and is stored in secretary granules. The pulsatile release of GH into circulation is regulated by the concerted actions of the […]